Issues Surrounding Bilingual Education
What is my aim with teaching a second language?
1. to assimilate individuals or groups into the mainstream of society; to socialize people for full participation in society
2. to unify a mutlilingual society; to bring unity to a multi-ethnic, multi-tribal, or multi-national linguistically diverse state
3. to enable people to communicate with the outside world
4. to provide language skills which are marketable, aiding employment and status
5. to preserve ethnic and religious identity
6. to reconcile and mediate between different linguist and political communities
7. to spread the use of colonial language, socializing an entire population to a colonial existence
8. to strengthen elite groups and preserve their privileged position in society
9. to give equal status in law to languages of unequal status in daily life
10. to deepen an understanding of language and culture
2. to unify a mutlilingual society; to bring unity to a multi-ethnic, multi-tribal, or multi-national linguistically diverse state
3. to enable people to communicate with the outside world
4. to provide language skills which are marketable, aiding employment and status
5. to preserve ethnic and religious identity
6. to reconcile and mediate between different linguist and political communities
7. to spread the use of colonial language, socializing an entire population to a colonial existence
8. to strengthen elite groups and preserve their privileged position in society
9. to give equal status in law to languages of unequal status in daily life
10. to deepen an understanding of language and culture
How do I approach teaching Second Language Acquisition?
Bloom's Taxonomy Applied to Language
Back in the 1950's, Benjamin Bloom and his colleagues presented their research on three overlapping domains believed to be important in learning: cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. Over the time, the theory has been modified, however the essential components are still considered in Second Language Acquisition. Find out how! To learn more about Bloom's Taxonomy click here. Cross-Linguistic Transfer We can identity four major types of cross-linguistic transfer:
How do I test and measure bilingualism?
Language Proficiency Tests
1. Norm-referenced tests - summative testing: compares one individual with others i.e. an IQ test 2. Criterion-referenced tests - formative testing: profiles an individual child on a particular language skill Norm-referenced tests may compare bilinguals with monolinguals. Criterion-referenced testing may facilitate feedback to the teacher that directly leads to intervention, but behind every criterion lurks a norm. There is no one over arching language proficiency testing. Problems - Ambiguity - words such as 'speak' and 'understand' include a wide variety of levels of proficiency - Context - ability to understand a language in one context and not another - Social Desirability/Subjectivity - self-ratings are vulnerable to: exaggeration or understatement, personal attitudes, identity, and self-esteem - Acquiescent Response - respondents tend to answer yes rather than no in self-rating questions - Self-Awareness - the age, nature and location of the reference group may prevent self-assessment from being comparable across a representative sample of people - Point of Reference - danger in using monolingual proficiency and performance as the point of comparison - Test Aura - danger in raising language measurement to the level of scientific measurement with an accompanying exaggerated mystique - Narrow Sampling of Dimensions of Language - language measurement may be perceived as something tangible and concrete - Insensitivity to Change - test scores need an expiry date - Labeling - test-scores create labels which create expectations that may lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy Alternative tests - real communicative situations Problems - time-consuming - biased by the presence of the researcher Language tests tend to measure the performance rather than competence. Communicate competence is usually done through an oral interview. The Common European Framework provides a common basis for the elaboration of language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, examinations, and textbooks. The Framework defines levels of proficiency that allows assessment of learners' progress irrespective of age, language, or region. The International English Language Testing System tests the English proficiency of non-native speakers of English. Candidates receive scores on a scale from one to nine, with allocation based on a rigorous and detailed system of performance descriptors (fluency and coherence; lexical resource, grammatical range and accuracy' pronunciation). ![]()
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Why use codeswitcing?
1. to emphasize a particular point in a conversation
2. to substitute an unknown word or phrase
3. to express a concept that has no equivalent
4. to reinforce a request
5. to clarify a point
6. to express identity, shorten social distance, communicate friendship or family bonding
7. to refer to a previous conversation
8. to interject into a conversation
9. to ease tension and inject humour
10. to relate to a change of attitude or relationship
11. to have a private conversation
12. to introduce a new topic
13. to copy peers and adults
How to implement it in a second language classroom.
Lot declares that, “The research documented… the pedagogic potentials behind codeswitching. These include increasing the inclusion, participation, and understandings of pupils in the learning processes; developing less formal relationships between participants; conveying ideas more easily; and accommodating lessons.” (p. 10).
2. to substitute an unknown word or phrase
3. to express a concept that has no equivalent
4. to reinforce a request
5. to clarify a point
6. to express identity, shorten social distance, communicate friendship or family bonding
7. to refer to a previous conversation
8. to interject into a conversation
9. to ease tension and inject humour
10. to relate to a change of attitude or relationship
11. to have a private conversation
12. to introduce a new topic
13. to copy peers and adults
How to implement it in a second language classroom.
Lot declares that, “The research documented… the pedagogic potentials behind codeswitching. These include increasing the inclusion, participation, and understandings of pupils in the learning processes; developing less formal relationships between participants; conveying ideas more easily; and accommodating lessons.” (p. 10).
How does motivation impact learning?
Why are students learning a second language?
Language Learning Motivation
- travel
- friendship
- knowledge
- the instrumental orientations
Integrative motivation - a wish to identify with or join another language group
Instrumental motivation - learning a language for useful purposes
Integrative is considered the greater likelihood of achieving proficiency in the second language.
Self-Determination Theory
1. Intrinsic Motivation - motivation to engage in an activity because that activity is enjoyable and satisfying to do
- IM Knowledge - motivation for doing an activity for the feelings associate with exploring new ideas and developing knowledge
- IM Accomplishment - the sensations related to attempting to master a task or achieve a goal
- IM Stimulation - motivation based simply on the sensation stimulated by performing the task
2. Extrinsic Motivation - action carried out to achieve some instrumental end, such as earning a reward or avoiding punishment
- External Regulation - activities that are determined by sources external to that person, such as tangible benefits or costs
- Introjected Regulation - performing an activity due to some type of pressure that individuals have incorporated into the self, such that they compel themselves to carry out that activity
- Identified Regulation - activities carried out because of its importance for achieving a valued goal
3. Amotivation - people see no relation between their actions and the consequences of those actions; the consequences are seen as arising as a result of factors beyond their control
Increased perceptions of freedom of choice and perceived competence are linked to more self-determined forms of motivation. Low perceptions of freedom of choice and perceived competence are also indicative of higher levels of amotivation. The more internalized the reason for L2 learning, the more comfortable and persevering students claimed to be. Students who learn an L2 in an autonomy-supportive environment where feedback enhances their sense of competence in the learning task are likely to be those students who learn because it is pleasurable or because it appeals to their self-concept. They are also less likely to feel anxious in the learning process, and they are less likely to give up L2 learning.
Whether one feels freedom of choice or competence is irrelevant if an external, practical reward dictates that an L2 be learned, as in the case of external regulation. Learning an L2 in order to develop knowledge, to be well skilled in the tongue of the country to which one wishes to travel, and, to a lesser extent, to develop friendships are readily related to feelings of competence and autonomy, as in the case of IM.
Culture and Motivation
Anglo-American children were more intrinsically motivate when they made their own choices, Asian American children were more intrinsically motivated when choices were made for them by trusted authority figures.
The above information take from: Noels, K., Pelletier, L., Clement, R., & Vallerand, R. (n.d.). Why Are You Learning A Second Language? Motivational Orientations And Self-Determination Theory. Language Learning, 57-85.
Language Learning Motivation
- travel
- friendship
- knowledge
- the instrumental orientations
Integrative motivation - a wish to identify with or join another language group
Instrumental motivation - learning a language for useful purposes
Integrative is considered the greater likelihood of achieving proficiency in the second language.
Self-Determination Theory
1. Intrinsic Motivation - motivation to engage in an activity because that activity is enjoyable and satisfying to do
- IM Knowledge - motivation for doing an activity for the feelings associate with exploring new ideas and developing knowledge
- IM Accomplishment - the sensations related to attempting to master a task or achieve a goal
- IM Stimulation - motivation based simply on the sensation stimulated by performing the task
2. Extrinsic Motivation - action carried out to achieve some instrumental end, such as earning a reward or avoiding punishment
- External Regulation - activities that are determined by sources external to that person, such as tangible benefits or costs
- Introjected Regulation - performing an activity due to some type of pressure that individuals have incorporated into the self, such that they compel themselves to carry out that activity
- Identified Regulation - activities carried out because of its importance for achieving a valued goal
3. Amotivation - people see no relation between their actions and the consequences of those actions; the consequences are seen as arising as a result of factors beyond their control
Increased perceptions of freedom of choice and perceived competence are linked to more self-determined forms of motivation. Low perceptions of freedom of choice and perceived competence are also indicative of higher levels of amotivation. The more internalized the reason for L2 learning, the more comfortable and persevering students claimed to be. Students who learn an L2 in an autonomy-supportive environment where feedback enhances their sense of competence in the learning task are likely to be those students who learn because it is pleasurable or because it appeals to their self-concept. They are also less likely to feel anxious in the learning process, and they are less likely to give up L2 learning.
Whether one feels freedom of choice or competence is irrelevant if an external, practical reward dictates that an L2 be learned, as in the case of external regulation. Learning an L2 in order to develop knowledge, to be well skilled in the tongue of the country to which one wishes to travel, and, to a lesser extent, to develop friendships are readily related to feelings of competence and autonomy, as in the case of IM.
Culture and Motivation
Anglo-American children were more intrinsically motivate when they made their own choices, Asian American children were more intrinsically motivated when choices were made for them by trusted authority figures.
The above information take from: Noels, K., Pelletier, L., Clement, R., & Vallerand, R. (n.d.). Why Are You Learning A Second Language? Motivational Orientations And Self-Determination Theory. Language Learning, 57-85.
How can I motivate learners?
1. Include a sociocultural component in the syllabus
2. Develop learner's cross-cultural awareness systematically, focusing on similarities rather than differences
3. Promote student contact with second language speakers
4. Develop learner's instrumental motivation by highlighting the usefulness of second language
5. Develop students self-confidence in language use
6. Increase student's interest and involvement in language learning tasks based on student's abilities
7. Be empathetic and sensitive to student's needs
8. Be congruent and behave in honest and true-to-self manner
9. Be accepting of student's strengths and weaknesses
10. Promote learner autonomy by allowing students real choices in learning
11. Minimize external pressure by having students share task responsibility for their own learning through peer-teaching and project work
12. Give feedback that is informative and do not over react to errors
Dornyei suggests, "Motivation provides the primary impetus to initiate learning in the L2 and later driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process, without sufficient motivation, even individuals with the most remarkable abilities cannot accomplish long-terms goals and neither are appropriate curricula and good teaching enough on their own to ensure student achievement."
2. Develop learner's cross-cultural awareness systematically, focusing on similarities rather than differences
3. Promote student contact with second language speakers
4. Develop learner's instrumental motivation by highlighting the usefulness of second language
5. Develop students self-confidence in language use
6. Increase student's interest and involvement in language learning tasks based on student's abilities
7. Be empathetic and sensitive to student's needs
8. Be congruent and behave in honest and true-to-self manner
9. Be accepting of student's strengths and weaknesses
10. Promote learner autonomy by allowing students real choices in learning
11. Minimize external pressure by having students share task responsibility for their own learning through peer-teaching and project work
12. Give feedback that is informative and do not over react to errors
Dornyei suggests, "Motivation provides the primary impetus to initiate learning in the L2 and later driving force to sustain the long and often tedious learning process, without sufficient motivation, even individuals with the most remarkable abilities cannot accomplish long-terms goals and neither are appropriate curricula and good teaching enough on their own to ensure student achievement."
How does identity factor into language learning?
Baker states: "Second language learning affects social identity. Language learning is partly about socialization into a new group. We learn the meaning, values and power relationships of a new group, and change our multiple identities."
Student's identities are affirmed and academic achievement promoted when teacher express respect for the language and cultural knowledge that students bring to the classroom and when the instruction is focused on helping students generate new knowledge, create literature and art and act of social realities that affect their lives.
Student's identities are affirmed and academic achievement promoted when teacher express respect for the language and cultural knowledge that students bring to the classroom and when the instruction is focused on helping students generate new knowledge, create literature and art and act of social realities that affect their lives.
How can I increase student achievement in bilingual learners?
- maintain high standards and expectations
- get to know individual's needs and strengths
- share students concerns, hopes, and dreams
- choose culturally relevant curriculum and instructional material that recognizes, incorporates and reflects students' heritage
- identify and dispel stereotypes
- use cooperative learning strategies
- integrate the arts
- promote students' health
- incorporate multiple forms of assessment
- embrace dual0language strategies
- use integrated, holistic approaches
Cole, R. W. (2008). Educating everybody's children diverse teaching strategies for diverse learners (Rev. and expanded 2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
- get to know individual's needs and strengths
- share students concerns, hopes, and dreams
- choose culturally relevant curriculum and instructional material that recognizes, incorporates and reflects students' heritage
- identify and dispel stereotypes
- use cooperative learning strategies
- integrate the arts
- promote students' health
- incorporate multiple forms of assessment
- embrace dual0language strategies
- use integrated, holistic approaches
Cole, R. W. (2008). Educating everybody's children diverse teaching strategies for diverse learners (Rev. and expanded 2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
How can I embrace cultural diversity?
Educators are nurturers of relationships. We endeavour to create a sense of belonging by genuinely honoring and believing in every individual. Bridging the cultural gap is important as it can be factor in student’s academic success (Cummins, 2000).
Create a classroom environment that embraces cultural diversity through:
- being cognizant of personal (the educator's) values and beliefs
- welcoming parental involvement
- inviting family members to share as an expert during a class inquiry project
- creating opportunities for students to teach both the teacher and classmates their language and culture
- integrating art, music, and movement
- connecting on a community level through school events
- encouraging students to share in informal situations
Create a classroom environment that embraces cultural diversity through:
- being cognizant of personal (the educator's) values and beliefs
- welcoming parental involvement
- inviting family members to share as an expert during a class inquiry project
- creating opportunities for students to teach both the teacher and classmates their language and culture
- integrating art, music, and movement
- connecting on a community level through school events
- encouraging students to share in informal situations
How can I give feedback?
Types of Corrective Feedback
1. Explicit feedback: teacher provides the correct form and clearly indicates that what the student said was incorrect
2. Recasts: the teacher’s reformulation of all or part of a student’s utterance, minus the error
3. Clarification requests: question indicating that the utterance has been misunderstood or ill-formed and that a repetition or reformulation is required
4. Metalinguistic feedback: contains either comments, information, or questions related to the form of the student’s utterance, without explicitly providing the correct form
5. Elicitation: teachers try to elicit the correct form by asking for completion of a sentence, or asking questions, or asking for a reformulation
6. Repetition: the teacher’s repetition, in isolation, of the erroneous utterance
Lyster has found that Intonation and visual cues should also be taken into account when corrective feedback is given. Recasts are the most frequent technique for error correction especially in communicative contexts,as they cause less learner anxiety and do not disrupt the flow of communication. However, because they are so discrete, recasts may go unnoticed.
1. Explicit feedback: teacher provides the correct form and clearly indicates that what the student said was incorrect
2. Recasts: the teacher’s reformulation of all or part of a student’s utterance, minus the error
3. Clarification requests: question indicating that the utterance has been misunderstood or ill-formed and that a repetition or reformulation is required
4. Metalinguistic feedback: contains either comments, information, or questions related to the form of the student’s utterance, without explicitly providing the correct form
5. Elicitation: teachers try to elicit the correct form by asking for completion of a sentence, or asking questions, or asking for a reformulation
6. Repetition: the teacher’s repetition, in isolation, of the erroneous utterance
Lyster has found that Intonation and visual cues should also be taken into account when corrective feedback is given. Recasts are the most frequent technique for error correction especially in communicative contexts,as they cause less learner anxiety and do not disrupt the flow of communication. However, because they are so discrete, recasts may go unnoticed.