Background Information on Bilingualism
What does it mean to be bilingual or multilingual?
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Working Definition of Bilingualism: The ability to use two or more languages.
This ability can be developed in two dimensions:
1. Receptive: Listening and Reading
2. Productive: Speaking and Writing
The 5th Language Competence is "inner thinking", which is the ability to use both languages for reasoning and reflection outside of education, as well as inside.
Metalinguistic Awareness (metalinguistic knowledge/metalinguistic ability) - thinking about and reflecting upon the nature and functions of language
Metalinguistic awareness is not typical of normal language use; people usually attend to the message being conveyed rather than to the linguistic elements which it conveys.The normal process by which one produces or understands language does not generate answers to metalinguistic questions such as: "How many words were in that sentence?" or "How many phonemes were in that word?".
Researchers can agree on two principles about bilingualism:
1. Both languages are active even when just one of them is being used
2. Even if there are shared conceptual representations and both languages are active in bilinguals, functionally the languages are independent of each other
L1 = First Language
L2 = Second Language
Views on Bilingualism
Fractional/monolingual view - the bilingual is two monolinguals in one person
Holistic view - the bilingual is not the sum of two complete or incomplete monolinguals, rather the person has a unique linguistic profile
Biculturalism - the combining of aspects of two cultures to produce a unique cultural configuration and identity
Types of Bilingualism
Additive Bilingualism - the addition of a second language and culture is unlikely to replace or displace the first language and culture
Subtractive Bilingualism - the second language and culture are acquired with pressure to replace or demote the first language
Shifting Bilingualism - where at an individual level, the languages shift in dominance
Incipient Bilingualism - people with minimal competence in a second language i.e., tourists with a few phrases
Balanced Bilingualism (equilingual, ambilingual) - someone who is equally fluent in tow languages across various contexts
Semilingualism - someone not having sufficient competence in either language
The types of bilingualism are a continuum of an individual's growth and development through language. Baker (2011) states, “over time and place, an individual’s two languages are never static but ever-changing and evolving” (p. 16).
Childhood Bilingualism
Simultaneous (infant bilingualism/bilingual acquisition/bilingual first language acquisition)- a child acquires two languages at the same time from birth
Sequential - a child learns one language in the home, the goes to nursery school or elementary school and learns a second language
Categories of Early Childhood Bilingualism
1. One person - one language - The parents have different languages, one of which is the dominant language of the community. The parents each speak their own language to the child from birth, but tend to speak one language to each other. This does not provide a necessary nor a sufficient context for the growth of bilingualism in children.
2. Home language is different from the language outside the home - The child acquires one language in the home and a different language outside the home.
3. Mixed Language - The parents speak both languages to the child. Codeswitching and codemixing (see below) are acceptable in the home and the neighborhood. The child will typically codeswitch with other bilinguals but not with monolinguals.
4. Delayed Introduction of the Second Language - Parents exclusively speak one language in the home until the child is two or three years of age, then add a second language. The tactic is to ensure a strong foundation in a heritage language before the dominant language outside the home becomes pervasive.
Informal language acquisition vs. Formal language learning
The age at which a child recognizes his or her two languages and decreases codemixing will differ considerably from child to child. Factors that influence this awareness are: the interaction between adults and the child, the nature of the adult input, increasing self-awareness in the child, adjusting to social expectations, varying context, and the child's relative proficiency in each language.
Codemixing is impacted by the child's language proficiency; it is something that is temporary and decreases with dual language proficiency.
The child's language choice will depend on:
- exposure to two languages in different social contexts
- the attitudes of parents to the two language and to mixing the language
- the language competences and metalinguistic abilities of the child
- personality
- peer interaction
- exposure to different forms of language education
- sociolinguistic influences such as the norms, values and beliefs of the community (Nicoladis & Genesee, 1997).
This ability can be developed in two dimensions:
1. Receptive: Listening and Reading
2. Productive: Speaking and Writing
The 5th Language Competence is "inner thinking", which is the ability to use both languages for reasoning and reflection outside of education, as well as inside.
Metalinguistic Awareness (metalinguistic knowledge/metalinguistic ability) - thinking about and reflecting upon the nature and functions of language
Metalinguistic awareness is not typical of normal language use; people usually attend to the message being conveyed rather than to the linguistic elements which it conveys.The normal process by which one produces or understands language does not generate answers to metalinguistic questions such as: "How many words were in that sentence?" or "How many phonemes were in that word?".
Researchers can agree on two principles about bilingualism:
1. Both languages are active even when just one of them is being used
2. Even if there are shared conceptual representations and both languages are active in bilinguals, functionally the languages are independent of each other
L1 = First Language
L2 = Second Language
Views on Bilingualism
Fractional/monolingual view - the bilingual is two monolinguals in one person
Holistic view - the bilingual is not the sum of two complete or incomplete monolinguals, rather the person has a unique linguistic profile
Biculturalism - the combining of aspects of two cultures to produce a unique cultural configuration and identity
Types of Bilingualism
Additive Bilingualism - the addition of a second language and culture is unlikely to replace or displace the first language and culture
Subtractive Bilingualism - the second language and culture are acquired with pressure to replace or demote the first language
Shifting Bilingualism - where at an individual level, the languages shift in dominance
Incipient Bilingualism - people with minimal competence in a second language i.e., tourists with a few phrases
Balanced Bilingualism (equilingual, ambilingual) - someone who is equally fluent in tow languages across various contexts
Semilingualism - someone not having sufficient competence in either language
The types of bilingualism are a continuum of an individual's growth and development through language. Baker (2011) states, “over time and place, an individual’s two languages are never static but ever-changing and evolving” (p. 16).
Childhood Bilingualism
Simultaneous (infant bilingualism/bilingual acquisition/bilingual first language acquisition)- a child acquires two languages at the same time from birth
Sequential - a child learns one language in the home, the goes to nursery school or elementary school and learns a second language
Categories of Early Childhood Bilingualism
1. One person - one language - The parents have different languages, one of which is the dominant language of the community. The parents each speak their own language to the child from birth, but tend to speak one language to each other. This does not provide a necessary nor a sufficient context for the growth of bilingualism in children.
2. Home language is different from the language outside the home - The child acquires one language in the home and a different language outside the home.
3. Mixed Language - The parents speak both languages to the child. Codeswitching and codemixing (see below) are acceptable in the home and the neighborhood. The child will typically codeswitch with other bilinguals but not with monolinguals.
4. Delayed Introduction of the Second Language - Parents exclusively speak one language in the home until the child is two or three years of age, then add a second language. The tactic is to ensure a strong foundation in a heritage language before the dominant language outside the home becomes pervasive.
Informal language acquisition vs. Formal language learning
The age at which a child recognizes his or her two languages and decreases codemixing will differ considerably from child to child. Factors that influence this awareness are: the interaction between adults and the child, the nature of the adult input, increasing self-awareness in the child, adjusting to social expectations, varying context, and the child's relative proficiency in each language.
Codemixing is impacted by the child's language proficiency; it is something that is temporary and decreases with dual language proficiency.
The child's language choice will depend on:
- exposure to two languages in different social contexts
- the attitudes of parents to the two language and to mixing the language
- the language competences and metalinguistic abilities of the child
- personality
- peer interaction
- exposure to different forms of language education
- sociolinguistic influences such as the norms, values and beliefs of the community (Nicoladis & Genesee, 1997).
What happens when languages mix and intertwine?
Codemixing - changes at the word level (Leo un magazine = I read a magazine.)
Codeswitching - any switch within the course of a single conversation
Translanguaging - accessing different linguistic features of separate languages simultaneously to communicate
The difference between Translanguagism and Codeswitching
It is important to note that translanguaging is not simply going from one language code to another. The notion of codeswitching assumes that the two languages of bilinguals are two separate monolingual codes that could be used without reference to each other. Instead, translanguaging posits that bilinguals have one linguistic repertoire from which they select features strategically to communicate effectively. That is, translanguaging takes as its starting point the language practices of bilingual people as the norm, and not the language of monolinguals, as described by traditional usage books and grammars.
Language borrowing - foreign loan words or phrases that have become an integral and permanent part of the recipient language
Language interference (transfer/cross-linguistic influence) - when people acquiring two languages mix their languages
Language brokers - parents may have little or no competency in the majority language, children act as interpreters in a variety of contexts
Negatives
- an exact translation may be difficult to achieve as their language is still developing
- children may be hearing information that is the preserve of adults rather than children
- children may be expected to be adult-like when interpreting and child-like at all other times
- can cause stress, fear, and uncertainty for the child in providing an accurate interpretation
- seeing their parents in an inferior position may lead to children despising their minority language
- may feel that proficiency in two or more languages is not enough
Positives
- it can bring parental praise, rewards, and status within the family for playing a valuable role
- such abilities may both gain esteem from others and raise self-esteem
- the child learns adult information quickly and learns to act with some authority and trust
- the child learns to take initiative
- can make the family more close, trusting, and integrated
- may have cognitive outcomes, such as metalinguistic awareness
- character formation such as empathy, maturity, astuteness, independence, and higher self-esteem
Codeswitching - any switch within the course of a single conversation
Translanguaging - accessing different linguistic features of separate languages simultaneously to communicate
The difference between Translanguagism and Codeswitching
It is important to note that translanguaging is not simply going from one language code to another. The notion of codeswitching assumes that the two languages of bilinguals are two separate monolingual codes that could be used without reference to each other. Instead, translanguaging posits that bilinguals have one linguistic repertoire from which they select features strategically to communicate effectively. That is, translanguaging takes as its starting point the language practices of bilingual people as the norm, and not the language of monolinguals, as described by traditional usage books and grammars.
Language borrowing - foreign loan words or phrases that have become an integral and permanent part of the recipient language
Language interference (transfer/cross-linguistic influence) - when people acquiring two languages mix their languages
Language brokers - parents may have little or no competency in the majority language, children act as interpreters in a variety of contexts
Negatives
- an exact translation may be difficult to achieve as their language is still developing
- children may be hearing information that is the preserve of adults rather than children
- children may be expected to be adult-like when interpreting and child-like at all other times
- can cause stress, fear, and uncertainty for the child in providing an accurate interpretation
- seeing their parents in an inferior position may lead to children despising their minority language
- may feel that proficiency in two or more languages is not enough
Positives
- it can bring parental praise, rewards, and status within the family for playing a valuable role
- such abilities may both gain esteem from others and raise self-esteem
- the child learns adult information quickly and learns to act with some authority and trust
- the child learns to take initiative
- can make the family more close, trusting, and integrated
- may have cognitive outcomes, such as metalinguistic awareness
- character formation such as empathy, maturity, astuteness, independence, and higher self-esteem
How complex is bilingualism?
There is a difference between language ability, language achievement, language competence, language performance, language proficiency, and language skills.
There are many dimensions of bilingualism to consider:
- ability - productive competence, passive bilingualism, receptive ability
- use - varied contexts
- balance of two languages - often one language is dominant
- age - simultaneous, consecutive, or sequential
- development - incipient bilinguals, ascendant bilingualism, recessive bilingualism
- culture - bicultural, multicultural, monocultural, acculturation,
- contexts - endogenous, exogenous, subtractive, and additive communities
- elective bilingualism - elective, circumstantial
There are many dimensions of bilingualism to consider:
- ability - productive competence, passive bilingualism, receptive ability
- use - varied contexts
- balance of two languages - often one language is dominant
- age - simultaneous, consecutive, or sequential
- development - incipient bilinguals, ascendant bilingualism, recessive bilingualism
- culture - bicultural, multicultural, monocultural, acculturation,
- contexts - endogenous, exogenous, subtractive, and additive communities
- elective bilingualism - elective, circumstantial
What are the benefits of being bilingual?
- Analytical skills and multi-tasking
- Increased sense of self-worth and identity
- Valuing the cultural heritage and minority language
- Developing a greater appreciation of other cultures
- Enhanced career opportunities and professional development
- The ability to live abroad and learn other languages easier later in life
- Acceptance and belonging to a particular speech and community
- Increased ability to learn other languages
Edwards stated that, "the importance of being bilingual is, above all, social and psychological rather than linguistic" (p.41).
- Increased sense of self-worth and identity
- Valuing the cultural heritage and minority language
- Developing a greater appreciation of other cultures
- Enhanced career opportunities and professional development
- The ability to live abroad and learn other languages easier later in life
- Acceptance and belonging to a particular speech and community
- Increased ability to learn other languages
Edwards stated that, "the importance of being bilingual is, above all, social and psychological rather than linguistic" (p.41).
Why are fluency and competence important?
Fluency vs. Competence: The Controversy
Academically related language competence is not the same as conversational competence.
Surface fluency is different from academically related aspects of language competence.
Bachman's Model of Language Competence
1. Organizational Competence
- Grammatical (e.g. Syntax, Vocabulary)
- Textual (e.g. Written and oral cohesion)
2. Pragmatic Competence
- Illocutionary Competence (e.g. speech strategies, language functions)
- Sociolinguistic Competence (e.g. sensitivity to register, dialect, cultural figures of speech)
Savignon's Communicative Competence Theory is comprised of four aspects:
1. Linguistic Competence
2. Sociolinguistic Competence
3. Strategic Competence (knowing how to maneuver when when there are holes in the language competence
4. Discourse Competence (knowing how to start and stop a conversation, how to interject, etc.)
Academically related language competence is not the same as conversational competence.
Surface fluency is different from academically related aspects of language competence.
Bachman's Model of Language Competence
1. Organizational Competence
- Grammatical (e.g. Syntax, Vocabulary)
- Textual (e.g. Written and oral cohesion)
2. Pragmatic Competence
- Illocutionary Competence (e.g. speech strategies, language functions)
- Sociolinguistic Competence (e.g. sensitivity to register, dialect, cultural figures of speech)
Savignon's Communicative Competence Theory is comprised of four aspects:
1. Linguistic Competence
2. Sociolinguistic Competence
3. Strategic Competence (knowing how to maneuver when when there are holes in the language competence
4. Discourse Competence (knowing how to start and stop a conversation, how to interject, etc.)
Why develop bilingualism later in life?
Societal reasons
- assimilation - preserve or restore a language - reduce conflict and obtain increased harmony between language groups - economic and trade reasons - interaction across continents - promoting intercultural understanding and peace Individual reasons - cultural awareness - cognitive development - social, emotional, and moral development, self-awareness, self-confidence, and social and ethical values - careers and employment |
What are some factors that may promote or deter bilingual effectiveness?
1. Linguistic - amount of language use in the community, media, technology, and home
2. Cultural - parental participation in classroom, curriculum content, and assumptions about background knowledge of students
3. Economic - the economic viability of the languages, career opportunities, and educational costs
4. Political - the treatment of immigrants and attitudes to language diversity
5. Social - size and cohesiveness of the language community, race and gender relationships
2. Cultural - parental participation in classroom, curriculum content, and assumptions about background knowledge of students
3. Economic - the economic viability of the languages, career opportunities, and educational costs
4. Political - the treatment of immigrants and attitudes to language diversity
5. Social - size and cohesiveness of the language community, race and gender relationships
What are different types of bilingual education?
The term bilingual education refers to an organized and planned program that uses two (or more) languages of instruction. The central defining features of bilingual programs are that the languages are used to teach subject matter content rather than just the languages themselves.
Why are the strong forms of bilingual education effective?
Cummins stated that, "When bilingual students develop low or minimal literacy in L1 and L2 as a result of inadequate instructional support (e.g. in submersion programs), their ability to understand increasingly complex instruction (in L2) and benefit from their schooling will decline.” (2010, p. 36).
Dual Language/Two Way Bilingual Education
- occurs when approximately equal numbers of language minority and language majority students are in the same classroom and both languages are used for instruction
- also known as: Two Way schools, Two Way immersion, Two Way bilingual education, developmental education, Dual Language education, bilingual immersion, double immersion, interlocking education, peace schools
Heritage Language Bilingual Education
- occurs where language minority children use their native, ethnic, home or heritage language in the school as a medium of instruction with the goal of full bilingualism
- also known as: maintenance bilingual education, developmental maintenance bilingual education
-is effective in promoting high levels of language proficiency, academic achievement, and positive attitudes towards learning
- maintain their home language, no loss in curriculum performance, children's attitudes are particularly positive
Immersion Bilingual Education
- the immersion language is the medium of instruction,
- the immersion curriculum is the same as the local first language curriculum,
- students all enter with similar (limited or non-existent) levels of proficiency in the immersion language
- learners mostly succeed in gaining competence in two languages
- many students do not achieve native-like abilities in speaking and writing
- immersion children learn a second language at no cost to their first language
- achievement in the curriculum is typically not adversely affected by early total immersion bilingual education
Dual Language/Two Way Bilingual Education
- occurs when approximately equal numbers of language minority and language majority students are in the same classroom and both languages are used for instruction
- also known as: Two Way schools, Two Way immersion, Two Way bilingual education, developmental education, Dual Language education, bilingual immersion, double immersion, interlocking education, peace schools
Heritage Language Bilingual Education
- occurs where language minority children use their native, ethnic, home or heritage language in the school as a medium of instruction with the goal of full bilingualism
- also known as: maintenance bilingual education, developmental maintenance bilingual education
-is effective in promoting high levels of language proficiency, academic achievement, and positive attitudes towards learning
- maintain their home language, no loss in curriculum performance, children's attitudes are particularly positive
Immersion Bilingual Education
- the immersion language is the medium of instruction,
- the immersion curriculum is the same as the local first language curriculum,
- students all enter with similar (limited or non-existent) levels of proficiency in the immersion language
- learners mostly succeed in gaining competence in two languages
- many students do not achieve native-like abilities in speaking and writing
- immersion children learn a second language at no cost to their first language
- achievement in the curriculum is typically not adversely affected by early total immersion bilingual education
Where does bilingual education need to be effective?
1. Individual level
2. Classroom level
3. School level
4. Beyond the school level
2. Classroom level
3. School level
4. Beyond the school level